Political Communications Essay

The power or ability of the media to influence people and the society is an undeniable reality. In fact, media is not to be underestimated as proven by the implications it has created among people and within their way of living. It is through this reason or principle that the media is regarded as something that is too powerful and which can be paralleled to the power of God. In particular, since the print and broadcast or electronic media have control over their respective public, its influence has apparently been considered as similar or equal to the Creator’s authority. However, while it is a true fact that the media encompasses almost everything in today’s modern world, it is also a reality that the industry could never be described as the second God. This is because God is above everything and that nothing or nobody can correspond to Him. Additionally, although the effects of media are indisputable, it should be realized that God is still supreme among the whole things and that nothing or no one comes next to Him. It is, therefore, under this principle that media should never be compared to the power of God and that whatever theory claiming otherwise should not be taken as the whole and acceptable concept. Ultimately, the media and all other things are nothing without God hence it is totally unwarranted to compare and place it next or even regard it as the second God. One concrete manifestation of the said improper and erroneous consideration is the principle created by Western theorist Tony Schwartz and as depicted in his book titled â€Å"Media, the Second God. The work done by Schwartz (1983) is nothing but a disillusioned idea about the power of media, electronic media in particular. While it is, in a way, acceptable that both print and broadcast media impacted people and the manner of living, it is totally illogical to compare or even consider media as the second God. In fact, the author has evidently failed to strengthen his idea. This is primarily for the reason that God is the highest or absolute among us and of all the things around us. Hence, Schwartz and his book can be taken according only to its merit or the fact that media is influential and definitely affects people and the society in general but its concept about media as the second God should definitely not be considered and accepted as an utmost premise. Media, the Second God – an Overview The Schwartz book explores media’s mounting power or influence in the fields of medicine, learning, industry, political affairs and beliefs and daily living of people. He distinguished electronic media as the â€Å"received media† while print media as a â€Å"perceived medium† (Schwartz, 1983, p. 1). In differentiating between the two, Schwartz emphasized that skill and education are essential for the public to recognize and accept perceived media while almost all people appreciate received media. The author explained that the contemporary world tends to the appreciation of the received media because of the increasing effect of electronic media in the manner how people carry out their lives. This particular age of reception manifests people dependence with the telephone, television, radio and other forms of electronic media. He added that the significant implications of electronic or received media are evident with the notable changes in the areas of â€Å"business, communication, education, statesmanship, and every other area of life† (Schwartz, 1983, p. 17). Schwartz further wrote that the advent and increasing influence of electronic media has proven its essence as the new media. Additionally, the power of the electronic media is supported by the authors with the ways how broadcast commercials or advertisements work among people and into their lives. In fact, electronic media has nearly removed the nature of door-to-door salespersons. This is because the radio and television as well as other forms of electronic media are able to get across the feelings, manner and value of products being promoted (Schwartz, 1983, p. 43). Schwartz also presented in his book how a telephone polling system, which is another form of electronic media, created an impact or changed people’s perception about the necessity of police protection against crime and eventually saved the John Jay College of Criminal Justice from closure (Schwartz, 1983, p. 1). Moreover, Schwartz has stressed the influence of electronic media with its social functions or the services it has offered not only to people but to the society as well. The book is ultimately recalled with its depiction of the incredible expansion of the telephone device as an absolute form of electronic media due to its tremendous influence into the lives of the people. Media, the Second God – a Critique In analyzing the Schwartz book, one is likely to experience a sense of depression because of the author’s apparent utopianism. Simply put, Schwartz’s idea of the growing purpose or role of the electronic media, particularly the telephone device, seemed too disillusioned or unrealistic. In particular, it is totally illogical and even less reassuring to discover when the author stated that the telephone device is on the rise as an instrument or another tool of electronic media in the field of education. In fact, his admission that the development of telephone seems to be gradual already contradicted his position that the devise is growing. The said disclosure also deserted Schwartz claim that the said device is an effective tool of learning primarily because of the apparent defect of the telephone. Even Schwartz’s claim that a number of students benefited from telephone-based classes failed to prove the effectivity and power of the telephone as a means of education. In short, it is unbelievable to state that an instruction about telephone is as convincing as an efficient method of learning. Damaging and Unproven Claims Schwart’s consideration of the media as the second God is subjected to the author’s many falsehoods as well as damaging and unsupported statements. An incredible claim by Schwartz is his statement that he was able to teach around the world even without leaving the luxury of his office through the use of the portable conference telephone. This is because despite the advancement of the electronic media, particularly the telephone device, it is still subjected to or not totally free from interruptions or technical obstacles. Hence, while the said statement tends to be probable, it is not the case all the time. At the highlight of the book’s chapter titled â€Å"The Incredible Expanding Telephone,† the author’s amusing tale about his American Museum of Natural History’s Laserium experience apparently sabotaged himself. It was a totally lame excuse when he said that while appropriately structured utilization of the telephone device has the ability of giving many important and useful services, it is still susceptible to problems as its poor plan may lead to telephone failure. Again, this time Schwartz contradicted and exposed himself to criticism. The author’s above manifestations of self-sabotage represent his usual characteristics as a highly-acclaimed sound designer, producer or creator of promotional advertisements or commercials and telecommunications teacher at New York University. Schwart’s self-sabotage is further proven by another bungle which he wrote in an earlier chapter of the book titled â€Å"The Electronic Classroom. In the said chapter, he extolled on the possibilities of working on recorded items as a form of education aid but again failed. This is because Schwartz offered the following simply as his solid proof of evidence: sound of family members fighting with each other, a walking manic depressive and a telephone dialogue, which he previously taped, with a person planning to commit suicide. Unfortunately for the readers, the said examples of Schwart’s self-sabotage were clearly depicted in the book. Either intentionally or not, the author and his work already lost its efficiency and credibility because Schwartz failed to prove or support his idea that the media, electronic media in particular, is the second God. This is because, unparalleled to God who is perfect, media has its flaws. As regard his other consideration of media as the second God, Schwartz’s once more not succeeded in his another declaration that refined or high-quality and efficient electronic advertisements can definitely sell substandard merchandise on a limited period. This claim has totally contradicted electronic media’s commercials about cigarette products which the author himself praised regretfully in the book. In fact, even his self-tribute chapter on how he envisioned and organized the fight which eventually saved the John Jay College was another proof of his personal destruction. This is because the author again fell short of bringing up any issue of essence or importance regarding the reason behind why the said educational institution is really important to be kept. Resemblance of Respect for God Notwithstanding the above stated flaws, the public may be able to contemplate what is really appealing and motivating about the Schwart’s book. One manifestation of such interesting quality and which is worthy to note is how strongly the people’s outlooks concerning the media certainly remind the readers of our admiration and high esteem for God. Additionally, due to the undeniable influence and assistance of the electronic media, people in post literate or deprived societies are better educated than people of the previous history accounts. Another manifestation of the book’s resemblance of respect for God is the fact that similar to our worship to the Creator, people and the society have high esteem about the need to protect and preserve human life. This is the reason why people in the countryside are too much worried about the proliferation and gravity of street crimes in other areas as what the electronic media is presenting. This is also due to the inclination of people to associate themselves with the people of other societies which they see on television or hear on radio. Media as Provider of Information, an Argument The last thing that is unacceptable to Schwart’s claims is his dispute that due to the overwhelming pieces of information which is accessible to people through electronic media, particularly television, the necessity to learn or specifically to write and read is not that immediate compared to before the arrival and development of the electronic media. With a benefit of the doubt, the author may not have intended this claim as a justification of illiteracy or an assertion that the skill to write and read has not benefits. However, he once again did not succeed in satisfactory stressing that in spite how much people grasp the manner of view and sound or noise due to advance contact or experience of the electronic media, there will still be difficulty in assessment and communication not unless people have learned and are able to write and read. One concrete manifestation of the said argument is Schwartz himself. This is for the reason that there could be a link between his usually disordered, self-conflicting claims and lines of reasoning as well as his automatic and ripped-ridden works. In fact, if not of too much criticism, the author may be literally depicted based from his own claim when he wrote that he led the class for school students who are regarded as â€Å"poor readers and poor listeners† (Schwarts, 1983, p. 128). This observation may be disputed by Schwartz himself especially taking into consideration his surprising power at influencing electronic reflections where even the power of verbal confidence may not be necessary to let the public have a glimpse of the author’s severe yet unproven perspectives and statements. Conclusion There have been many works exemplifying and proving the power or influence of the media to people and the society in general but the Schwartz book is certainly not one of them. This is because of the apparent misleading writing scheme and unsupported concepts presented by the author. While, in a way, he succeeded in imparting to the public the truth about the ability of the media, particularly the electronic media, to affect people and their way of living, his confusing or disillusioned ideas and claims are proof that nothing or no one can equal to God’s level. Schwartz was totally wrong in conveying the idea that the media is the second God for the simple reason that no other entity can be placed next to God, much so paralleled with Him. A critical analysis of the Schwartz book exposes the ineffectivity of the author in his approach to convey his ideas and eventually make the public agree. Additionally, the book unfortunately showed its inadequate and unproven content as well as the substance of the author’s line of thinking. In effect, Schwartz failed in whatever objective he has in doing the book. This is because his intentions are not met and eventually turned out to be futile efforts. The book is nothing but a collection of unsupported concepts and disenchanted theories. Schwartz’s approach or style is not well-founded and convincing simply because of the fact that his main idea that media is the second God is an outright contradiction of the existing view that there is nothing next or even equal to God. The topic about the power or influence of media is definitely relevant or that the material itself is appealing or that the writing style and quality somehow corresponds to the body of literature of that period. However, these good points were immaterial because the author and the book failed in the accuracy or reliability of thoughts organization. This is aside from the fact that majority of the contentions presented by Schwartz were unsupported. For this, it can be construed that the book is generally not valuable to be provided with attention and relevance. Ultimately, Schwartz and his work can be held liable for insinuating the principle that media is the second God precisely for reality that media is a creation of man who, in turn, could not be created without the power of God.

Tough Guise

Tough Guise What does it mean to be a man in society? Jackson Katz in the documentary â€Å"Tough Guise† argues that social media puts a lot of pressure on how men should look and act. For example, Arnold Schwarzenegger is possibly one of the most popular role models for young boys and men today. Therefore when our society thinks of the ultimate â€Å"many man† the first thing that comes to mind is strong, aggressive, tall, handsome, courageous, rough, tough, emotionless, insensitive, fearless and practical. Men should not be soft, submissive or weak. If a man would show weakness in any way, there would be much criticism to follow.People fail to realize how their cultural expectations can be harmful to boys, men, women, and society as a whole. Our culture needs to be more excepting of what it â€Å"truly† means to be a man. Gender roles are taught to boys from the very day they are born. Parents treat sons and daughters differently. Little boys are taught to be t ough. When little boy’s cry their parents might respond by telling him to grow up, and be a tough. However if a little girl did the same thing she would most likely receive more sympathy from her parents. A good example of this is in athletics. It is acceptable for a female athlete to cry when an injury takes place.But male athletes are usually made fun of for being â€Å"weak† or â€Å"sissies. † These expectations can be harmful to boys and men. According to Dennis Thompson, some studies show men and women share more emotional similarities than differences. When men are forced to hold in their emotions, they are more likely to suffer from high blood pressure, and participate in riskier behaviors such as smoking or drinking. (â€Å"Gender Differences in Emotional Health. †Ã‚  EverydayHealth. com. N. p. , n. d. Web. ) Boys and men should be allowed to grow up with non-stereotypical responses to their true emotional needs.Due to this tough guise persona, w omen suffer too. In the documentary â€Å"Tough Guise† Jackson Katz talks about the modern multicultural women’s movement. Katz explains how this movement in history has given men new intakes about relationships, work, and parenting. There are now many young men today who are very open minded about relationships between men and women, and sexual equality. But there has also been a â€Å"backlash. † This means some men are not adjusting to these cultural changes. For example Howard Stern plays the role of a â€Å"bad boy† who is only famous for demeaning women.Stern shows women as objects by airing them on television half naked and uses degrading names. Howard Stern makes young male viewers feel good about themselves by degrading women and regressing back to traditional sexist ways. Not only are young men seeing people like Howard Stern as the â€Å"social norm,† they are also being influenced by sexual violence films. Many slasher films show women in sexually explicit ways right before they are being assaulted. Jackson Kratz seems to think this might be why so many men are sexually assaulting women. Violence is rapid among boys and men, which is affecting our whole society.Men and boys are being bullied in their schools. This is resulting in mass murders. In order to show dominance boys and men are relying on guns. In fact, the boys interviewed felt they needed to seek revenge on those who bullied them to assert their manhood. Luke Woodham, who carried out the Pearl, Mississippi, quoted â€Å"people called me gay, stupid, fat, and lazy. Murder is not weak and slow-witted, murder is gutsy and daring. † I am not insane; I did this to show society that people like me are mistreated every day. † ( â€Å"The Day Luke Woodham Killed All Those People. †Ã‚  YouTube. YouTube, 15 Apr. 008. )   Luke Woodham was did not fit into societies cultural norm; therefore felt the need to show his dominance by taking lifeâ⠂¬â„¢s. These are things society needs to think about. Unfortunately Men are putting up a front for society. With this being said men go through a lot in order to fit the stereotypical â€Å"manly man. † Our culture needs to see all of the negative outcomes of putting this kind of pressure on men. Men should be allowed to be true to themselves without being judged. When men are expected to fit a certain stereotype, this sometimes results in violence against women, and society.

Analysis of Public Celebrity Apologies in America

Analysis of Public Celebrity Apologies in America Devin Black Julia TofantÃ… ¡uk Their circumstances and effects via analyzing specific cases Introduction Recently, I have become aware of a trend that has been sweeping across America – the celebrity apology, or precisely, the non-apology. I think I have always been aware of the constant apologies made by celebrities, but it has only been in the past year when I have actually paid attention to the words they were using to apologize, and under what circumstances they were apologizing. In fact, the exact moment when I became infatuated with the celebrity apology was when I was listening to a broadcast of the Opie and Anthony Radio Show in March 2014 and the hosts were discussing the numerous celebrity apologies that had been made during the previous week. Their discussion about celebrity apologies began to consume the show daily, until they officially established an â€Å"Apology Clock† on June 5, 2014 (Apology Clock, 2014). The experiment was to see if they could go t en days without a celebrity apology. The results showed that they could not, as there was at least one new apology a day and more often than not there were apologies from multiple celebrities. Their research ended unexpectedly one month later when one of the hosts became a victim of the celebrity apology. I will discuss more about this later in the paper. For the purposes of this paper, I will begin by defining the terms and scope the paper covers. Secondly, I will present some cases from a wide range of circumstances which celebrities apologized, and the results of their apology. Finally, I will discuss Americans’ reaction to the celebrity apology. Definitions According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary , a celebrity is defined as â€Å"a person who is famous.† For this paper, the definition will be narrowed to only a person who is recognizable in North America and broadened to include corporations, as these are considered individuals under the law. An apol ogy is defined as â€Å"an expression of regret for having done or said something wrong.† For this paper, we also need to consider the definition of a non-apology apology , which is defined as â€Å"a statement that has the form of an apology but does not express the expected contrition.† An example of a non-apology apology would be saying â€Å"I’m sorry that you feel that way† to someone who has been offended by a statement. This apology does not admit that there was anything wrong with the remarks made, and additionally, it may be taken as insinuating that the person taking offense was excessively thin-skinned or irrational in taking offense at the remarks in the first place (Lazare, 2005). Case Studies of celebrity apologies and the results of the apology There are hundreds, if not thousands of examples of celebrity apologies. For this paper, the time frame of the case studies of celebrity apologies examined will begin in 1998, well after the advent of the Internet. This starting point was chosen because the Internet disseminates information almost effortlessly, therefore more people would be aware of the apologies given by celebrities.

Unit 8 Application 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Unit 8 Application 2 - Essay Example The exit of a manager must be categorised as downsizing, voluntary or discharge exit so that the calculation of turnover rates in the end becomes possible. Factors contributing to leaving HCLC may be low motivation or external factors in relation to what HCLC offer. It is important to analyse so that the organisation knows what managers are going for that is not being offered (Heneman, Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). The organisation may fail to retain some of those valuable managers unless we are concerned about the issue. A higher turnover may be faced in the future if we do not address the issues in the present. This may spoil the image of the organisation such that getting contracts may become problematic. Managers who are leaving may leave with other employees leading to reduced performance and indiscipline. Later, it may be hard to find, attract or hire managers with value. HCLC should look at the basis upon which the managers have left the organisation in the previous year. It is important to find out how long they worked in the organisation and how they were managing their positions. (Harris and Brannick, 1999) It would be very wise to interview those managers who have quit knowing the major reasons of managerial turnover. Sometimes employees are said to quit their bosses but not their job. This is a result of the kind of relationship between managers and their bosses (Gully and Phillips, 2010). Proper research and collection of data on relationships that managers share with operations manager should be conducted. Benefits and costs resulting from managerial turnover should be conducted. Categories of cost should be known in terms of training, replacement and separation and all financial non-financial costs estimated. Benefits must be weighed in association with costs of managerial turnover. This information will

American Patriotism During World War One Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American Patriotism During World War One - Essay Example The army provided concise stirring and patriotic speeches in the local communities. The information had both positive and negative effect on patriotism. On one hand, it persuaded people to identify with America and think that, their country was doing the right thing. On the other hand, the information demonized those who opposed the war. Among other things showing American patriotism is the Espionage Act of 1917. The act recommended stiff penalties to those who declined to work in the American armed forces during the war, helped the enemy or distributing information against the war. The Sediction Act was also enacted making it illegal to engrave or publish anything that criticized the government, the army or the constitution on the basis of the war. As a result, many people ended up being convicted by the law for violating these acts as they were considered unpatriotic. All these acts were created in an attempt to create and define patriotism due to the World War 1. The United States wanted to prove that it was a world power thus, the need to make the people invest their efforts in the war. The only way the government could do this is by increasing people’s patriotism to the country. ... For instance, some communities barred teaching of German language in government schools; hence, German Americans were irregularly targets of mob violence. Those Americans who opposed the government’s participation in the war or condemned president’s administration strategies faced challenges to their patriotism. They also risked being convicted or imprisoned based on the Sedicition and Espionage Acts. Even at the end of the war, any patriotic Americans became worried due to the threatened homeland security resulting from the radical ideas adopted, hence, the red scare. During World War 1, passionate patriotism was widespread in the United States. It was as a result of the patriotism, that the red scare took place. During this war, Armistice was performed in 1918 and around nine million people were employed in war industries as suggested by Lorini (1999). Other four million worked in the armed forces hence this shows how people were being patriotic. The Americans showed their patriotism in two main ways during the World War 1. First they showed patriotism by sending sixteen million soldiers to fight in the war. In order to achieve this number of fighters the government had to create a sense of patriotism among the citizens. This patriotism was created through circulation of information (propaganda) which was either correct or not. This was aimed at creating the citizens’ interest in their country hence the willing to fight for it. Secondly, there were also many companies which produced wartime materials. The American government established many companies which ensured sufficient supply of fire arms used by the soldiers during the World War 1. Many people including women who wanted to proof patriotic to the country participated in these companies and

The Department of Defense Better Buying Power Essay

The Department of Defense Better Buying Power - Essay Example d goods, which was aimed at gaining extra value for the American taxpayer by increasing productivity and efficiency in defense spending (Parrish, 2012). The first phase of the BBP planned to cut spending by $487 billion for the entire DOD in ten years, and the lessons learnt since its implementation have been incorporated into creating BBP 2.0, which was initiated in 2013. Since the implementation of the first phase in 2010 and the second in 2013, there are numerous examples of acquisition executives adhering to the BBP initiative. According to Kendall (2014), the initiative has been a qualified success with evidence suggesting that the practices and policies of BBP have taken hold and opportunity for improvement still abounds. BBP refers to DODs plan to use best practices in strengthening its buying power, improving the productivity and efficiency of the department, and to give the war-fighter value-added and affordable military capability. The initiative consists of essential principles of military acquisitions that seek to attain improved efficiency by promoting competition, doing away with bureaucratic and unproductive acquisition processes, and controlling costs. As a result, the DOD expects that the overall outcome of the initiative will be the improvement of tradecraft in service acquisition. While it should also, provide incentives to improve government and military industry innovation and productivity. BBP 2.0 was a further initiative created to improve on BBP 1.0, seeking to build on the DODs commitment towards continually improving their acquisition practices. Some of the plans put into place that show the initiative’s progress include the Defense Acquisition Board’s affordability analysis, which seeks to facilitate decision making on defense investments. For instance, opportunities for smaller entrepreneurs have been given additional focus and attention, while military services are now using cost-estimates as standard practice. Majority of

The role of employee engagement in the delivery of enhanced Assignment

The role of employee engagement in the delivery of enhanced organizational performance - Assignment Example The psychological contract has been further explained in the light of the managerial roles. The managers expect that their subordinates will seek out for new challenges and foster loyalty towards the organization, at the same time the employees also expect that the organization will offer them sufficient work flexibility and growth opportunities. An employee will increase their individual output and responsibility if the organization gives more priority towards its staffs and offers them with perks and rewards. Thus it has been clearly stated that a proper leadership style along with a proper organizational culture will lead to increased employee engagement which as a result will improve the overall organizational performance. This report is a part of the unit assignment for the full time students of the Manchester Metropolitan University. The report contains the discussion over the work engagement of an employee in his organization and how it has been affected by the organizational behaviour. It highlights the relationship between the organizational output and the employee engagement. The role of managers and supervisors has also been discussed, which acts as a major factor in improving the organizational output by increasing employee engagement. This report has been backed up by several relevant articles and theories in order to justify the findings. This paper will help managers to identify the organizational behaviour responsible for higher employee engagement and increased organizational output. The managers will be able to relate their organization to this study and make necessary amendments in the firm policies which will eventually lead to voluntary employee commitment. This business report has been prepared on secondary data collected from various journal articles and theories from relevant organizational management books. Several real life examples which are cited in the paper have been collected from

Organization advertisment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organization advertisment - Assignment Example There are several services offered at the center that you will find beneficial. There are plenty of philanthropic activities happening at the center with events such as clothing exchange and free Teen Night among others all happening in Brattain House. Besides, the center offers training to parents on how best to improve their parenting skills especially with the teenage children. There are plenty of captivating programs at the center that are aimed at improving the social welfare of the society. With the realization of the importance of sharing, the organization arranges events such as Little Yoga and Teen Night among several others that enable parents to meet and interact as they assist each other. The impacts of such social connectivity and events are immense. Amazingly, other services that one will find intriguing include the orientation program in which preschoolers are absorbed and rehearsed for their anticipated school days making them establish strong academic foundations that have proved to have positive impacts in their lives. At the Family Resource Centre, such donations are highly valued. Any contribution will be highly appreciated. There are a number of reasons why Family Resource Centre requires and deserves your

Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 11

Response - Essay Example A few pages into it and I realized how engrossing it is for me. I could totally relate myself to the writer’s description about the non serious and lax attitude the students hold towards college education. Their fears and trepidations about the whole experience, their eagerness to skip college on the whole and pursue their careers immediately after graduation so that they can instill in themselves a sense of independence. His approach to my attitude was so evident, it felt as if he is actually pointing at me and talking to me. I am already half way through my book. I feel I have a lot to learn from the writer’s example. He reflects upon the methods of teaching the college adapts and the kind of learning process the students go through. College education not only imparts higher education but it gives the students the ideal opportunity to prepare themselves for the lifelong career they are planning to pursue. For me, I feel college education will not only give me the facility and time to imbue in myself the professionalism and confidence required ahead but to explore my career options as well. Today I finished the book, going tentatively through its last pages, reflecting on my college experience on the whole and how can I make a difference that will allow me to make the most of it. I review my subjects again, this time with much greater foresight and interest. For the first time, I bothered to attend my career counseling appointment. I discussed in detail with the counselor, of my ambitions and aspiration and if I am taking the best measures to ensure its achievements. I decided that I will take up an internship at my college so that I can further build up on my resume. In fact, I left my book at the career counselor’s desk deliberately so that he can recommend it to other students going through the same transformation as me.

Brave New World Essay Example for Free

Brave New World Essay When we first got off the early rocket at the Savage Reservation, I was full of joy, excitement at the fact that I was finally going to see the Savage Reservation. I had heard lots of stories about the place and I was drawn in when the first story had started. What was more was that I was going with the man whom I was with at the time. It was a feeling I had never felt before in my life. I think the people here call it love. When we first arrived, we got given our soma rations- enough for 2 half-gramme tablets a day and we started following the directions of the Delta-Minuses. Seeing them there, mindlessly repeating the directions to us, made me sure that I definitely would not want to be a Delta-Minus or any class for that matter, Beta-Minus’ get the best of both worlds. We get very good jobs and Alpha’s are attracted to us. What could be better? The first message we heard from the Delta was that we were a good few miles away before we would even see the Savage. So we set off and progressed hill after hill, a tedious and laborious job. A few hours later, we finally arrived at the Savage Reservation at dusk. Nothing could have prepared us for what we saw at that moment. The building were no more than 2 stories high and most of them were huts. The place was full of dirt, with no Deltas or Epsilons to clean up the mess. There was no factories or hatcheries. We were told shortly after we arrived, that people had babies here. Not pre-designed babies but real life babies! Our stay was quite short-lived. We were only supposed to stay here for a month, my stay was much more long-lived. We decided to go out for a walk that day, through the forest, the only part with decent greenery. We soon got tired after the long walk, so we decided to lie down and rest, although we did not get much. We were awoken to the sound of thunder and lightning piercing our ear-drums. No amount of soma could have prepared us for what was to come. When we saw the lightning we ran as fast as we could, whilst hearing the screams and shouts from the locals. All Tomakin’s movements were a blur to me, for all I could think about was my feet and the fact that I needed to take soma. I think we were running for a long time when I started to feel tired and stopped running, going down to a normal walking pace, increasing the distance between Tomakin and I. To make matters worse, a bolt of lightning struck down right in the middle between us so I could not run back to him. I then fled as far as I could, away from the thunder. Away from the soma. Away from my life in the hatcheries. The social services then tried to look for me but at that point I was hidden away within the maze of the forest, hiding in a hut that I built. Therefore I was never found and was presumed dead. I will never forget that day. That day that Tomakin and I were split up forever.

An Exploratory Study On Student Engagement Education Essay

An Exploratory Study On Student Engagement Education Essay Research on higher education studies places emphasis on quality educational practices. This is especially true in a country such as Lebanon, which has experienced rapid growth in the number of institutes of higher education, and, in parallel, the number of university students. Engaging undergraduate students has been one major area of focus since research has shown engaging educational activities enhance the educational process and setting. Engaged students learn more material and learn it more effectively. Benchmarks and techniques have been established in order to engage the disengaged members of a student body. Training academic faculty and staff in the area of engagement, and the application of engaging techniques presents institutes of higher education with new possibilities for enhancing the quality of education. 116 Lebanese students completed an engagement survey in a preliminary study on variables which may correspond to levels of engagement. The study found that gender and years at university were significantly related to higher levels of engagement. 1 Introduction According to Hu and Kuh [1] student engagement is the most important factor of higher education in terms of learning and development. They define engagement as the quality of student effort devoted to educationally purposeful activities. Their research has revealed that academic performance improves as a result of challenging goals in the classroom environment. They also found that students want to both find and master challenges in and out of the classroom environment. However, a great number of students do not believe they are being adequately challenged to meet their academic needs. Many students also report they are not participating in activities that are known to be engaging. 1.1 Student Disengagement Research conducted at the University of California at Santa Barbara [2] showed an emerging culture of disengagement. This is due to several societal factors. Flacks and Thomas[2] believe that, in an effort to accommodate higher numbers of students, scholastic quality has been compromised. The amount of time students spend studying and participating in on-campus activities has decreased as they spend more time working and socializing off campus. Students seemed to be less prepared academically when they start college courses; therefore they are unable to avail themselves of all the university experience has to offer. Consequently, they are less engaged [3]. Boyer [4] believed that higher education is increasingly a part of the problem of student disengagement as opposed to being a part of the solution. Some institutes of higher education have become places students are credentialed rather then fostered to address the problems of their societies. In order to facilitate the scholarship of engagement, academia must connect the rich resource of our students to the responsibility thereof and address the social, civic, and ethical problems of civilization. In doing so, the scholarship of engagement will show its worth and service to a worldwide audience [4]. 1.2 Engagement Current research and literature show student demographics, habits and interests have changed over time [5, 6, 7]. This new campus culture has led to changing student expectations as well. Students want to be challenged and they want to know that their instructor is available to them both in and out the classroom. Students prefer instructors that motivate them to engage with classroom content [8, 9]. Creating activities related to student habits would better engage students in classroom content. For example, Kuh [9] found that surfing the internet was the leisure activity which demonstrated the greatest increase from 1996 until 2001. Students also spent more time listening to music, and watching movies than in previous years. Institutes of Higher Education should accommodate the needs and expectations of these new students. Emerging technology has necessitated the inclusion of interactivity, more involvement with the teacher as facilitator, and a greater emphasis on technology as a learning tool into traditional models of learning and course design. Educationally purposeful activities using information technology, such as emailing faculty or students about assignments, encouraged collaboration and increased contact with other students and faculty. Using information technology had a strong positive relationship with students overall measure of engagement. [9] An engaging classroom results in students engaged with classmates, instructor, and subject content. Additionally, faculty and student interaction seems to be a significant factor of quality student engagement and satisfaction. Studies have shown a positive correlation exists between engagement scores and faculty availability and access outside of class. [7, 6] Hu and Kuh [1] found student engagement to be a function of the interaction of students and various institutional characteristics. Students who had more positive views of their college or university campus were more likely to have higher engagement scores [10]. Kuh and Hu [11] used data from the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ) database to compare undergraduate student experiences at research institutions and their counterparts in other college classifications. This study suggests that student engagement is varied among the different types of institutions. They found liberal arts colleges tended to score better in student engagement than other classifications of colleges. The variance of engaging institutions is related to the institutions mission rather than classification. The belief that small, private liberal arts colleges are more engaging institutions was not supported by the study[11]. However, liberal arts colleges consistently excel in the benchmarking for faculty-student interaction. It is presumed that since classes are smaller there is greater opportunity for faculty-student contact [7]. Defining institutional excellence is only successful in terms of the institutions effective educational practices or processes. The most important indicators of excellence, in the university setting, include quality and focus of instruction, faculty and peer interaction, writing experiences, and active involvement in course work. In an engaged university, the student is highly involved in the culture of the institute both in and out of the classroom. Increased engagement leads to increased acquisition of knowledge, skill development, and higher student graduation (retention) rates [12]. Pike and Kuh [13] compared first- and second-generation college students in levels of engagement and intelligence development. On average, first-generation college students were less engaged, and do not engage in activities associated with success in college, such as living on campus and participating in extra-curricular activities. Low levels of engagement are not related to intelligence but rather to being the first family member to attend college, financial hardships, or living at home. The groups found to be more engaged overall included students living on campus, females, minority students, and students planning to pursue advanced degrees. These students also reported greater perceived gains in their intellectual development and learning performance [13]. Engagement literature suggests that an engaging institutional environment positively affect learning productivity. These institutions not only attempt to engage students in class, but in college life, via social and civic organizations, intramural activities, sports events, and living in the campus community. The commitment to engaging students should be apparent in the institutions mission, vision, and philosophy. The members of the university faculty, staff, and administration must create an environment that engages students on campus and in the classroom [14]. 1.3 Teaching in the classroom If engagement is to be fostered and encouraged in the university setting, it is important to examine the learning environment instructors create. A study by Kuh [8] found that engaged students want prompt feedback. Teacher-student relationships of respect, as opposed to friendship, were also more conducive to learning [6, 7, 8]. One standard of teaching in institutes of higher education is lecturing. Few students possess this type of intelligence and therefore this method is not conducive to an engaging classroom environment. According to The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) annual reports students find methods, such as lecturing and note taking, to be less than engaging [6, 7]. Active learning is student learning via reading, writing, and participating in activities which apply learned concepts in an engaging manner [6, 7]. Engaging activities include class discussions, faculty and peer interactions, socialization in the college context, and interactive assignments [5, 6, 7]. Student affect, a mental and emotional reaction toward learning, demonstrates engagement. Cues, such as student questioning or cognitive or emotional excitement of learning concepts, are examples of positive student affect. Kuh [9] found students with higher levels of affect, displayed more engaging learning behaviors. Teachers who make eye contact, use gestures and humor, and personalize examples in class stimulate higher levels of student affect. Equally important were instructors who develop engaging, active learning while communicating high standards of expected academic performance. [15] Research[14] shows teachers who are successful, as measured by student engagement in the classroom, create an interesting and engaging learning environment. Research also revealed that outstanding teachers employ many types of strategies and methodologies. No single technique or specific delivery methodology yielded a greater number or percentage of engaged students. [14] Henning [16] reported improvement in engagement when there were open classroom discussions, creative questioning, and important and relevant material. One methodology to make course content interesting and relevant is called rhetoric skill. The instructor begins with a narrative open to discussion. The instructor then elicits a more conceptual understanding of the topic as student participation increases. Students are encouraged to actively participate in debate and inquiry until they control the discussion. [16] Similarly, Socratic questioning and responding deepens understanding of concepts that encourage student engagement. Effective teachers create a natural learning environment where students feel safe to express their opinions in a nonjudgmental, unbiased atmosphere. Engagement also increases when students work collaboratively to solve problems. Finally, teachers who create diverse learning experiences will have more engaged and interested students overall [10]. Regardless of methodology, it is important for teachers to emphasize clarity and important points, use relevant examples, and speak intelligibly. To create highly engaged students, teachers must be aware of, and use, many teaching strategies. They should teach from within and become equal participants in the learning process. [17] 2 The case of Lebanon Opportunities for higher education in Lebanon today have reached levels unparalleled in Lebanese history. The first institutes of higher education in Lebanon were the American University of Beirut (formerly the Syrian Protestant College), founded in 1866 and Saint Joseph University, founded in 1875. It wasnt until 1953 that the public university, Lebanese University, was opened. [18] A private university education at that time was only for the elite. After the Lebanese civil war came to an end, and the country began to stabilize, the demand for higher education began to grow. In 1996 the Ministry of Higher Education [18] set new licensing regulations for institutes of higher education. By 2000, 23 institutions (referred to as new universities) had been established. Lebanon currently boasts 41 institutes of higher education [19]. These are divided into 1 public university, 26 private universities, 7 university institutes, 3 university institutes of technology and 4 university institutes for religious studies. [18] The UNESCO Institute for Statistics [20] released a set of gross enrollment ratios on education in Lebanon from in 2008. This shows that more and more females are continuing into higher education. By 2008, 52% of tertiary age students were in tertiary education (46-male: 57-females) [20]. Quantity was not the equivalent of quality, and only 7 of Lebanons universities were labeled as excellent [21]. Lebanon is currently facing a restructuring in the area of higher education. In order to maintain its role as a leader of excellence in education in the Middle East, institutes of higher education must focus on the quality of their students as opposed to the quantity[21]. Quality assurance programs have become critical to Lebanese academics and educational institutes. The Trans-European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (TEMPUS) project, Quality Assurance for Higher Education in Lebanon (QAHEL) is one example. This project is to raise awareness of European models of quality in higher education among Lebanese higher education institutions. [19] 3 The Study The questionnaire was established by Ahlfeldt, Mehta and Sellnow [17] in their research studies of classroom engagement. The questionnaire was proven in their research as both a valid and reliable measure of engagement with an alpha reliability of 0.84. Therefore the researchers felt that this was an appropriate tool of measure for levels of engagement in MUBS classrooms. 3.1Research Questions Are females more engaged than males? Are students who self reported higher GPAs more engaged than those with lower GPAs? Does age play a role in level of engagement? Does the level of student engagement differ according to the number of years at university? 3.2 Sample The researchers administered the questionnaire to 116 English communication skills students at The Modern University for Business and Science (MUBS). MUBS, a new university, was established in 2000 and strives to maintain a quality oriented institute of higher education, in a highly competitive market. In order to establish equal representation in the sample, in terms of the variables tested (gender, GPA, age and years at university), and the majors available at the university, the questionnaire was administered during English communication skills classes during the 1st week of the spring 2010 semester. MUBS doesnt offer a English as a major of study at the university. English communication skills courses are general requirements for all M.U.B.S students, regardless of major, when their language of instruction is English. 4. Results Correlations were run on the variables which were supposed to affect student levels of engagement. These variables were gender, self reported GPA scores, age and years at university. The relationship between gender and engagement was assessed using a paired-samples T-test. A significant relationship was found in the relationship between gender and student perceptions of engagement. On average females showed significantly greater levels of engagement, (F = 79.029, SE 1.428), than males (M= 70.407, SE 1.502), t (116) = -66.162, p In order to assess the relationship between age and engagement, a bivariate correlation was used. There was no significant relationship between the age of students and engagement, r = -.069, p (one-tailed) >.05. In order to assess the relationship between self reported GPAs and engagement, a bivariate correlation was used. There was no significant relationship between the self reported GPAs of students and engagement, r = -.072, p (one-tailed) >.05. In order to assess the relationship between years at university and engagement, a bivariate correlation was used. There was a significant relationship between years spent at the university and engagement, r = .243, p (one-tailed) 5. Conclusions: The research on MUBS students coincided with the literature on student engagement. Female and senior students were found to be more engaged than their peers. Age and GPA showed no significant correlations to levels of student engagement. This could be true for a number of factors. First of all women in Lebanon are slowly working to close the gender gap. Yet they may still feel they have to work twice as hard as men to succeed. The other factor which may explain higher engagement among women is directly related to stressors of society. In general there is the notion that girls cant go out as often or stay out as late as boys. Boys are allowed to be bad while girls must be angelic in behavior. These ideas may transfer over into the academic arena. With boys who dont mind achieving less since they are not held accountable. A boys will be boys mentality. In terms of senior student engagement levels, these students are not older and wiser, but rather have more university experience. They know what their teachers expect and meet those expectations readily. Seniors take part in more major courses, are assigned a senior project, and are closer to completing their education and entering the real world. As they race towards graduation they are pushing harder to ensure they graduate on time. This includes a stipulation at the university of a minimum Accumulative GPA of 2.0 in order to graduate. Such factors may account for higher levels of engagement in senior students. One interesting factor was noted on 3 separate questionnaires from the Damour branch. 3 students added notes to their questionnaires. These notes stated that the only time they completed these activities (activities of engagement) was during English sessions. This might be beneficial to future MUBS engagement research. 5. Limitations of the Study and Implications for Future Research The questionnaire was administered in order to complete a preliminary study on student engagement at MUBS. In order for a total quality initiative to take place the class room questionnaire should perhaps be replaced with an NSSE questionnaire. A larger sample size should be tested. Also, Damour students take classes before 2 p.m, in the Hamra branch many courses begin after 2 and some classes continue until 7 or 8 p.m. This study does not take this into consideration. Previous studies on students have shown that the proportion of different religions at MUBS is not representative of a Lebanese sample. This is another limitation to the study. Another factor not tested for, but which may have affected the outcomes, is the idea of urban vs. rural student. Many of the students at MUBS live in villages and travel to university in the city and then back up to their villages in the mountains. They are country folk. This may also have skewed the results. There are also key variables the literature focuses on, and institutional characteristics which may be relevant to the MUBS study. Some of these are number of credits, branch of university, am-pm classes, first generation college student, socio-economic status, religion, choice of major and transfer students.

Physics of the Golf Drive Essay -- physics sport sports golf

This paper examines the physics involved in driving a golf ball off the tee. The objective of a drive is to achieve the greatest distance while leaving the golf ball in the middle of the fairway. Several factors will be considered in achieving the longest, and most accurate drive. The factors include calculating the velocity of the golf ball after the club and ball collide, the mass of the club head, launch angle, the shape of the club face, and finding the optimal golf ball. Intuition tells us that the larger the velocity of the club head at impact with the golf ball, the larger the velocity of the golf ball after the impact. To calculate the velocity of the golf ball we need to consider the relationship between the velocity of the club head to the velocity of the golf ball. If the collision between club head and ball were elastic we would be able to use Conservation of Mechanical Energy and Conservation of Momentum to determine final velocities of club head and ball after collision, but the golf ball undergoes some deformation at time of impact, thus some energy is lost. A simple test of bouncing a golf ball on a solid surface shows that the golf ball does not return to it's initial height. The elasticity of a ball (e) is equal to the proportion of the velocity before collision to the velocity after collision. If the collision was elastic, e = 1. If the collision was perfectly inelastic, e = 0. The value of e is between 0.70 and 0.80. In order for there to be a collision the initial velocity of the club head must be greater than the initial velocity of the golf ball. Also for there to be separation, the final velocity of the golf ball must be greater than the final velocity of the club head. Thus the eq... ...ar Application to Golf.† The Physics of Sports. By Angelo Armenti, Jr. New York: AIP Press, 1992. 71-76. 2 Daish, C. B. The Physics of Ball Games. London: English Universities Press, 1972. 3 Kim, Kevin. Shut Up and Play. 23 Nov. 2002 . 4 MacDonald, William M., and Stephen Hanzely. â€Å"The Physics of the Drive in Golf.† American Journal of Physics 59.3 (1991): â€Å"213-218†. 5 Penner, A. Raymond. â€Å"The Physics of Golf: The Convex Face of a Driver.† American Journal of Physics 69.10 (2001): â€Å"1073-1081†. 6 - - -. â€Å"The Physics of Golf: The Optimum Loft of a Driver.† American Journal of Physics 69.5 (2001): â€Å"563-568†. 7 Serway, Raymond A., Robert J. Beichner, and John W. Jewett, Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.

Main Causes of The Great Depression :: history

Main Causes of The Great Depression The Great Depression was the worst economic slump ever in U.S. history, and one which spread to virtually all of the industrialized world. The depression began in late 1929 and lasted for about a decade. Many factors played a role in bringing about the depression; however, the main cause for the Great Depression was the combination of the greatly unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920's, and the extensive stock market speculation that took place during the latter part that same decade. The maldistribution of wealth in the 1920's existed on many levels. Money was distributed disparately between the rich and the middle-class, between industry and agriculture within the United States, and between the U.S. and Europe. This imbalance of wealth created an unstable economy. The excessive speculation in the late 1920's kept the stock market artificially high, but eventually lead to large market crashes. These market crashes, combined with the maldistribution of wealth, caused the American economy to capsize. The "roaring twenties" was an era when our country prospered tremendously. The nation's total realized income rose from $74.3 billion in 1923 to $89 billion in 1929(end note 1). However, the rewards of the "Coolidge Prosperity" of the 1920's were not shared evenly among all Americans. According to a study done by the Brookings Institute, in 1929 the top 0.1% of Americans had a combined income equal to the bottom 42%(end note 2). That same top 0.1% of Americans in 1929 controlled 34% of all savings, while 80% of Americans had no savings at all(end note 3). Automotive industry mogul Henry Ford provides a striking example of the unequal distribution of wealth between the rich and the middle-class. Henry Ford reported a personal income of $14 million(end note 4) in the same year that the average personal income was $750(end note 5). By present day standards, where the average yearly income in the U.S. is around $18,500(end note 6), Mr. Ford would be earning over $345 million a year! This maldistribution of income between the rich and the middle class grew throughout the 1920's. While the disposable income per capita rose 9% from 1920 to 1929, those with income within the top 1% enjoyed a stupendous 75% increase in per capita disposable income(end note 7). A major reason for this large and growing gap between the rich and the working-class people was the increased manufacturing output throughout this period. Main Causes of The Great Depression :: history Main Causes of The Great Depression The Great Depression was the worst economic slump ever in U.S. history, and one which spread to virtually all of the industrialized world. The depression began in late 1929 and lasted for about a decade. Many factors played a role in bringing about the depression; however, the main cause for the Great Depression was the combination of the greatly unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920's, and the extensive stock market speculation that took place during the latter part that same decade. The maldistribution of wealth in the 1920's existed on many levels. Money was distributed disparately between the rich and the middle-class, between industry and agriculture within the United States, and between the U.S. and Europe. This imbalance of wealth created an unstable economy. The excessive speculation in the late 1920's kept the stock market artificially high, but eventually lead to large market crashes. These market crashes, combined with the maldistribution of wealth, caused the American economy to capsize. The "roaring twenties" was an era when our country prospered tremendously. The nation's total realized income rose from $74.3 billion in 1923 to $89 billion in 1929(end note 1). However, the rewards of the "Coolidge Prosperity" of the 1920's were not shared evenly among all Americans. According to a study done by the Brookings Institute, in 1929 the top 0.1% of Americans had a combined income equal to the bottom 42%(end note 2). That same top 0.1% of Americans in 1929 controlled 34% of all savings, while 80% of Americans had no savings at all(end note 3). Automotive industry mogul Henry Ford provides a striking example of the unequal distribution of wealth between the rich and the middle-class. Henry Ford reported a personal income of $14 million(end note 4) in the same year that the average personal income was $750(end note 5). By present day standards, where the average yearly income in the U.S. is around $18,500(end note 6), Mr. Ford would be earning over $345 million a year! This maldistribution of income between the rich and the middle class grew throughout the 1920's. While the disposable income per capita rose 9% from 1920 to 1929, those with income within the top 1% enjoyed a stupendous 75% increase in per capita disposable income(end note 7). A major reason for this large and growing gap between the rich and the working-class people was the increased manufacturing output throughout this period.

Organized Crime Wthin The Unit Essay -- essays research papers fc

Organized Crime Within the United States Organized crime is a widespread topic of concern among many Americans due to its popularity in the media and entertainment industry. The public is aware of its existence, yet is not fully aware of why and how this complex â€Å"underworld† exists. In order to fully understand this area of criminology, one must take into account the characteristics of organized crime, the variables that allow organized crime to thrive, its large-scale effects on society, and the measures that have been taken to extinguish organized crime. The roots of organized crime can be traced back to periods of vast amounts of immigration within the United States. Many of the immigrants sought wealth and prosperity upon their arrivals but inevitably found themselves to be members of the lower class. While some groups, such as the Jews, were able to climb the social ladder, other groups faced hostility and racism, hindering their acquisition of wealth. Their movement toward crime can be explained by Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunities Theory. This states that there are both legitimate and illegitimate means to achieve desired goals. In the immigrants’ case, they â€Å"want what American society offers and expects of all – success – yet they are prevented from legitimately achieving this goal because of opportunity blockage, that is poverty and discrimination† (O’Kane 27). In turn, the immigrants turned to a criminal subculture as means to attain their goals. They began violating an extreme amount of criminal statutes such as extortion, murder, bribery, fraud, narcotics, and labor racketeering. Thus far, the focus of this topic has been on early groups of organized criminals within the United States. The face of organized crime has changed within the past few decades, however, and is currently in a period of transition. Whereas the Italian-Americans were once the rulers of the underworld, African-American and Hispanic involvement has been on the increase. This cultural shift is significant because it alters the infrastructure of organized crime within the United States. Criminal groups form in different manners than in previous years. Within Italian-American organized crime, kinship is the primary segue into organized crime. Among African-Americans and Hispanics, however, there are two distinct types of linkages among criminals. First are causal... ...uently used by wealthy and large corporations, in order to monopolize† (Miller 1999). Although it appears as though many actions are being taken in an effort to extinguish organized crime, RICO illustrates that the government may have ulterior motives behind their efforts. If this is the case, the government must expect organized crime to increase according to the Differential Opportunities Theory. According to this theory, organized crime occurs when minority groups are unable to achieve the ‘American dream’ through legitimate means. By further oppressing these groups, the government places them back at square one where they will most likely continue to lead criminal lives. Thus the most effective manner to alleviate organized crime is to ensure that the aforementioned groups have access to legitimate means in achieving their goals. By making this effort, the government would have a greater chance of preventing the underclass’s development into the underworld. Works Cited Anechiarico, Frank. â€Å"Administrative Culture and Civil Society.† Administration & Society. 30.1 (1998): 13-22. Criminal Division. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2 March 2000.

Becoming a Police Officer Essay

Although being a police officer can be stressful, it can also be highly rewarding if public service is important to you. (Kara, 1999) When becoming a Police Officer, you are making a commitment to protect your community even if it means giving your life to do it. Despite what some people may think every police officer does their job they way they do it to make sure that your families are safe every night. Just like any job out there now a days you have to have an education. To be a police officer most places are now requiring a two degree. Going beyond a two year degree usually leaves you the opportunity to progress in your field of choice allowing for more job options. Being a Police Officer means that you have to first meet the requirements set forth by the department with which you are applying, have the unique set of skills to do your job efficiently, and you have to have the willingness to further your education to go further in your career. To be successful as a Police Officer there are some characteristics that you need. Some of these characteristics include having a level head, being able to think quickly on your feet, and have the ability to work well under pressure. You have to be able to work well with little to no supervision. This is a skill you need when working undercover and in the field. It is also important that you have self-confidence, and confidence in your ability to make decisions and take the lead in what could be a risky situation. Leadership skills are also important because the people of the community look to you to be able to solve issues and crime related issues. Having the capabilities to be a leader comes very important in the job as an officer. The whole community depends upon your ability to be a leader in their eyes. It’s highly important to have the ability to stay calm in highly stressful situations. If you are unable to stay calm in high pressure situations and emotional intense situations it will become hard for you to as an officer to function on a daily basis. Having patience (which can be difficult at times) and a good set of morals are also important skills an officer must have. An officer must be able to handle situations with patience and good communication skills. These come very handy while interviewing a suspect or even dealing with issues in the community. Having a good set of morals are important because as an officer of the law you must set the example and follow the laws yourself and not believe that you can get away with everything because you are above the law, because you are not. You are an enforcer of the law, so to enforce the law upon others you must also obey the laws yourself. You also should have a good sense of right and wrong to be able to encourage good behavi or to the public. The basic requirements to be a police officer are usually about the same, because most follow the civil service regulations when hiring officers. These requirements would include: Being a United States citizen, you have to be at least twenty-one years old, have a high school diploma or equivalent education, possess a valid driver’s license, and have no prior convictions. Now these are just the basics, most departments generally have more requirements, for example a lot of departments now require that you have at least an associate’s degree in criminal justice. Before you can begin working in a department as an officer you are generally required to attend a police academy which you must complete and pass to be qualified as a Police Officer. When you go through the police academy you are generally there from twelve to fourteen weeks, while there you must pass a physical fitness and written exam. While at the police academy educational wise, you will learn state ordinances and local laws, working with the public, constitutional laws, accident investigation, incident reporting, civil rights, mental preparation for hostility, and criminal psychology. Like most jobs you can learn all you want about a job but, you learn best by doing. Because police jobs are dangerous jobs they require specific training to succeed in the field. Work experience is done under the supervision of a training officer. The on the job training includes: using firearms, responding to emergencies, controlling traffic, CPR and first-aid, self-defense techniques, apprehension techniques, risk assessment, and role playing. All training is essential to be the best you can be at being an officer. All the training that is endured is important for you to be the person the community needs you to be. There are several opportunities for advancement in law enforcement. The police force ranking is clearly structured and goes as followed: Police constable, sergeant, inspector, chief inspector, superintendent, chief superintendent, assistant chief constable, deputy chief constable, and chief constable. Police constables have to complete a two year probationary period before they can be eligible for higher ranking. When the probationary period is over police constables are then able to apply for specialist units such as the fraud squad, fire arms, drug squad, child protection, criminal investigation department (CID) traffic, mounted branches, dog handlers, and underwater search units. Becoming a police officer is a process; you are tested physically and mentally. Being a police officer is an important job because those people are there for you, your family, and the community. Not only is education a requirement to being a police officer, but furthering that education will open up more opportunities in that field. To be a police officer it takes a number of skills to be the best you can be at your job. References AGCAS. (2012, January). Police officer career development. Retrieved from http://www.prospects.ac.uk/police_officer_career_development.htm Education Portal. (2003). Police officer: Educational requirements for police officers. Retrieved from http://education-portal.com/articles/Police_Officer_Educational_Requirements_for_Police_Officers.html What type of person can succeed in law enforcement. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.communitypolicing.org/law-enforcement-success

Pareto Optimality

Pareto efficiency, or  Pareto optimality, is a concept in  economics  with applications in  engineering  and  social sciences. The term is named after  Vilfredo Pareto, an  Italianeconomist who used the concept in his studies of  economic efficiency  and  income distribution. [citation needed] Given an initial allocation of  goods  among a set of  individuals, a change to a different allocation that makes at least one individual  better off  without making any other individual worse off is called a  Pareto improvement. An allocation is defined as â€Å"Pareto efficient† or â€Å"Pareto optimal† when no further Pareto improvements can be made. Pareto efficiency is a minimal notion of efficiency and does not necessarily result in a socially desirable distribution of resources: it makes no statement about equality, or the overall well-being of a society. [1][2] A state of affairs where it is not possible to improve the economic lot of some people without making others worse off; a  mercantilist view. The implications of this view in welfare economics are that, once an economy has ceased to grow, it is impossible to increase the wealth of the poor without opposing the  Pareto criterion; in other words, without making the rich worse off. This then becomes an argument for retaining the  status quo, even if the distribution of income in society is very uneven. A  Pareto improvement, however, occurs if resources can be better utilized so that one group's prosperity increases, but not at a cost to another's. DEFINITION OF NEGOTIATION Negotiation is one of the most common approaches used to make decisions and manage disputes. It is also the major building block for many other alternative dispute resolution procedures. Negotiation occurs between spouses, parents and children, managers and staff, employers and employees, professionals and clients, within and between organizations and between agencies and the public. Negotiation is a problem-solving process in which two or more people voluntarily discuss their differences and attempt to reach a joint decision on their common concerns. Negotiation requires participants to identify issues about which they differ, educate each other about their needs and interests, generate ossible settlement options and bargain over the terms of the final agreement. Successful negotiations generally result in some kind of exchange or promise being made by the negotiators to each other. The exchange may be tangible (such as money, a commitment of time or a particular behavior) or intangible (such as an agreement to change an attitude or expectation, or make an apology). Negotiation is the principal way that people redefine an old relationship that is not working to thei r satisfaction or establish a new relationship where none existed before. Because negotiation is such a common problem-solving process, it is in everyone's interest to become familiar with negotiating dynamics and skills. This section is designed to introduce basic concepts of negotiation and to present procedures and strategies that generally produce more efficient and productive problem solving. CONDITIONS FOR NEGOTIATION A variety of conditions can affect the success or failure of negotiations. The following conditions make success in negotiations more likely. Identifiable parties who are willing to participate. The people or groups who have a stake in the outcome must be identifiable and willing to sit down at the bargaining table if productive negotiations are to occur. If a critical party is either absent or is not willing to commit to good faith bargaining, the potential for agreement will decline. Interdependence. For productive negotiations to occur, the participants must be dependent upon each other to have their needs met or interests satisfied. The participants need either each other's assistance or restraint from negative action for their interests to be satisfied. If one party can get his/her needs met without the cooperation of the other, there will be little impetus to negotiate. Readiness to negotiate. People must be ready to negotiate for dialogue to begin. When participants are not psychologically prepared to talk with the other parties, when adequate information is not available, or when a negotiation strategy has not been prepared, people may be reluctant to begin the process. Means of influence or leverage. For people to reach an agreement over issues about which they disagree, they must have some means to influence the attitudes and/or behavior of other negotiators. Often influence is seen as the power to threaten or inflict pain or undesirable costs, but this is only one way to encourage another to change. Asking thought-provoking questions, providing needed information, seeking the advice of experts, appealing to influential associates of a party, exercising legitimate authority or providing rewards are all means of exerting influence in negotiations. Agreement on some issues and interests. People must be able to agree upon some common issues and interests for progress to be made in negotiations. Generally, participants will have some issues and interests in common and others that are of concern to only one party. The number and importance of the common issues and interests influence whether negotiations occur and whether they terminate in agreement. Parties must have enough issues and interests in common to commit themselves to a joint decision-making process. Will to settle. For negotiations to succeed, participants have to want to settle. If continuing a conflict is more important than settlement, then negotiations are doomed to failure. Often parties want to keep conflicts going to preserve a relationship (a negative one may be better than no relationship at all), to mobilize public opinion or support in their favor, or because the conflict relationship gives meaning to their life. These factors promote continued division and work against settlement. The negative consequences of not settling must be more significant and greater than those of settling for an agreement to be reached. Unpredictability of outcome. People negotiate because they need something from another person. They also negotiate because the outcome of not negotiating is unpredictable. For example: If, by going to court, a person has a 50/50 chance of winning, s/he may decide to negotiate rather than take the risk of losing as a result of a judicial decision. Negotiation is more predictable than court because if negotiation is successful, the party will at least win something. Chances for a decisive and one-sided victory need to be unpredictable for parties to enter into negotiations. A sense of urgency and deadline. Negotiations generally occur when there is pressure or it is urgent to reach a decision. Urgency may be imposed by either external or internal time constraints or by potential negative or positive consequences to a negotiation outcome. External constraints include: court dates, imminent executive or administrative decisions, or predictable changes in the environment. Internal constraints may be artificial deadlines selected by a negotiator to enhance the motivation of another to settle. For negotiations to be successful, the participants must jointly feel a sense of urgency and be aware that they are vulnerable to adverse action or loss of benefits if a timely decision is not reached. If procras- tination is advantageous to one side, negotiations are less likely to occur, and, if they do, there is less impetus to settle. No major psychological barriers to settlement. Strong expressed or unexpressed feelings about another party can sharply affect a person's psychological readiness to bargain. Psychological barriers to settlement must be lowered if successful negotiations are to occur. Issues must be negotiable. For successful negotiation to occur, negotiators must believe that there are acceptable settlement options that are possible as a result of participation in the process. If it appears that negotiations will have only win/lose settlement possibilities and that a party's needs will not be met as a result of participation, parties will be reluctant to enter into dialogue. The people must have the authority to decide. For a successful outcome, participants must have the authority to make a decision. If they do not have a legitimate and recognized right to decide, or if a clear ratification process has not been established, negotiations will be limited to an information exchange between the parties. A willingness to compromise. Not all negotiations require compromise. On occasion, an agreement can be reached which meets all the participants' needs and does not require a sacrifice on any party's part. However, in other disputes, compromise–willingness to have less than 100 percent of needs or interests satisfied–may be necessary for the parties to reach a satisfactory conclusion. Where the physical division of assets, strong values or principles preclude compromise, negotiations are not possible. The agreement must be reasonable and implementable. Some settlements may be substantively acceptable but may be impossible to implement. Participants in negotiations must be able to establish a realistic and workable plan to carry out their agreement if the final settlement is to be acceptable and hold over time. External factors favorable to settlement. Often factors external to negotiations inhibit or encourage settlement. Views of associates or friends, the political climate of public opinion or economic conditions may foster agreement or continued turmoil. Some external conditions can be managed by negotiators while others cannot. Favorable external conditions for settlement should be developed whenever possible. Resources to negotiate. Participants in negotiations must have the interpersonal skills necessary for bargaining and, where appropriate, the money and time to engage fully in dialogue procedures. Inadequate or unequal resources may block the initiation of negotiations or hinder settlement. WHY PARTIES CHOOSE TO NEGOTIATE The list of reasons for choosing to negotiate is long. Some of the most common reasons are to: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gain recognition of either issues or parties; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Test the strength of other parties; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obtain information about issues, interests and positions of other parties;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate all sides about a particular view of an issue or concern; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ventilate emotions about issues or people; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Change perceptions; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mobilize public support; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Buy time; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bring about a desired c hange in a relationship; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Develop new procedures for handling problems; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make substantive gains; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Solve a problem. WHY PARTIES REFUSE TO NEGOTIATE Even when many of the preconditions for negotiation are present, parties often choose not to negotiate. Their reasons may include: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiating confers sense and legitimacy to an adversary, their goals and needs;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties are fearful of being perceived as weak by a constituency, by their adversary or by the public; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discussions are premature. There may be other alternatives available–informal communications, small private meetings, policy revision, decree, elections; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting could provide false hope to an adversary or to one's own constituency; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting could increase the visibility of the dispute; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiating could intensify the dispute; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties lack confidence in the process; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a lack of jurisdictional authority;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Authoritative powers are unavailable or reluctant to meet; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting is too time-consuming; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties need additional time to prepare; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties want to avoid locking themselves into a position; there is still time to escalate demands and to intensify conflict to their advantage. DEFINITIONS For negotiations to result in positive benefits for all sides, the negotiator must define what the problem is and what each party wants. In defining the goals of negotiation, it is important to dis tinguish between issues, positions, interests and settlement options.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An  issue is a matter or question parties disagree about. Issues can usually be stated as problems. For example, â€Å"How can wetlands be preserved while allowing some industrial or residential development near a stream or marsh? † Issues may be substantive (related to money, time or compensation), procedural (concerning the way a dispute is handled), or psychological (related to the effect of a proposed action). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Positions are statements by a party about how an issue can or should be handled or resolved; or a proposal for a particular solution. A disputant selects a position because it satisfies a particular interest or meets a set of needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interests are specific needs, conditions or gains that a party must have met in an agreement for it to be considered satisfactory. Interests may refer to content, to specific procedural considerations or to psychological needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Settlement Options–possible solutions which address one or more party's interests. The presence of options implies that there is more than one way to satisfy interests. SELECTING A GENERAL NEGOTIATION APPROACH The negotiator will need to select a general negotiation approach. There are many techniques, but the two most common approaches to negotiation are positional bargaining and interest-based bargaining. Positional Bargaining Positional bargaining is a negotiation strategy in which a series of positions, alternative solutions that meet particular interests or needs, are selected by a negotiator, ordered sequentially according to preferred outcomes and presented to another party in an effort to reach agreement. The first or opening position represents that maximum gain hoped for or expected in the negotiations. Each subsequent position demands less of an opponent and results in fewer benefits for the person advocating it. Agreement is reached when the negotiators' positions converge and they reach an acceptable settlement range. WHEN IS POSITIONAL BARGAINING OFTEN USED? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the resource being negotiated is limited (time, money, psychological benefits, etc. ). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When a party wants to maximize his/her share in a fixed sum pay off. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the interests of the parties are not interdependent, are contradictory or are mutually exclusive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When current or future relationships have a lower priority than immediate substantive gains. ATTITUDES OF POSITIONAL BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Resource is limited. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other negotiator is an opponent; be hard on him/her. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Win for one means a loss for the other . †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Goal is to win as much as possible. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Concessions are a sign of weakness. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a right solution–mine. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Be on the offensive at all times. HOW IS POSITIONAL BARGAINING CONDUCTED? 1. Set your target point–solution that would meet all your interests and result in complete success for you. To set the target point, consider: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your highest estimate of what is needed. (What are your interests? ) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your most optimistic assumption of what is possible. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your most favorable assessment of your bargaining skill. 2. Make target point into opening position. 3. Set your bottom line or resistance point–the solution that is the least you are willing to accept and still reach agreement. To identify your bottom line, consider: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your lowest estimate of what is needed and would still be acceptable to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your least optimistic assumption of what is possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your least favorable assessment of your bargaining skill relative to other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your  Best  Alternative To a  Negotiated  Agreement (BATNA). 4. Consider possible targets and bottom lines of other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why do they set their targets and bottom lines at these points? What interests or needs do these positions satisfy? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Are your needs or interests and those of the other party mutually exclusive? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Will gains and losses have to be shared to reach agreement or can you settle with both receiving significant gains? . Consider a range of positions between your target point and bottom line. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each subsequent position after the target point offers more concessions to the other negotiator(s), but is still satisfactory to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider having the following positions for each issue in dispute: Opening position. Secondary position. Subsequent position. Fallback position–(yellow light that indicates you are close to bottom line; parties who want to mediate should stop here so that the intermediary has something to work with). Bottom line. 6. Decide if any of your positions meets the interests or needs of the other negotiators. How should your position be modified to do so? 7. Decide when you will move from one position to another. 8. Order the issues to be negotiated into a logical (and beneficial) sequence. 9. Open with an easy issue. 10. Open with a position close to your target point. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate the other negotiator(s) why you need your solution and why your expectations are high. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate them as to why they must raise or lower their expectations. 11. Allow other side to explain their opening position. 12. If appropriate, move to other positions that offer other negotiator(s) more benefits. 13. Look for a settlement or bargaining range — spectrum of possible settlement alternatives any one of which is preferable to impasse or no settlement. 14. Compromise on benefits and losses where appropriate. a = Party A's resistance point b = Party A's target c = Acceptable options for Party A x = Party B's target y = Party B's resistance point z = Acceptable options for Party B 15. Look for how positions can be modified to meet all negotiators' interests. 16. Formalize agreements in writing. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIORS OF POSITIONAL BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Initial large demand–high or large opening position used to educate other parties about what is desired or to identify how far they will have to move to reach an acceptable settlement range. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Low level of disclosure–secretive and non-trusting behavior to hide what the settlement range and bottom line are. Goal is to increase benefits at expense of other. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bluffing–strategy used to make negotiator grant concessions based on misinformation about the desires, strengths or costs of another.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Threats–strategy used to increase costs to another if agreement is not reached. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Incremental concessions–small benefits awarded so as to gradually cause convergence between negotiators' positions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hard on people and problem–often other negoti ator is degraded in the process of hard bargaining over substance. This is a common behavior that is not necessarily a quality of or desirable behavior in positional bargaining. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF POSITIONAL BARGAINING Costs †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Often damages relationships; inherently polarizing (my way, your way) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cuts off option exploration. Often prevents tailor-made solutions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotes rigid adherence to positions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obscures a focus on interests by premature commitment to specific solutions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Produces compromise when better solutions may be available Benefits †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  May prevent premature concessions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is useful in dividing or compromising on the distribution of fixed-sum resources †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Does not require trust to work †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Does not require full disclosure of privileged information Interest-Based Bargaining Interest-based bargaining involves parties in a collaborative effort to jointly meet each other's needs and satisfy mutual interests. Rather than moving from positions to counter positions to a compromise settlement, negotiators pursuing an interest-based bargaining approach attempt to identify their interests or needs and those of other parties  prior to developing specific solutions. After the interests are identified, the negotiators jointly search for a variety of settlement options that might satisfy all interests, rather than argue for any single position. The parties select a solution from these jointly generated options. This approach to negotiation is frequently called integrated bargaining because of its emphasis on cooperation, meeting mutual needs, and the efforts by the parties to expand the bargaining options so that a wiser decision, with more benefits to all, can be achieved. WHEN IS INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING USED? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the interests of the negotiators are interdependent. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When it is not clear whether the issue being negotiated is fixed-sum (even if the outcome is fixed-sum, the process can be used).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When future relationships are a high priority. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When negotiators want to establish cooperative problem-solving rather than competitive procedures to resolve their differences. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When negotiators want to tailor a solution to specific needs or interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When a compromise of principles is unacceptable. ATTITUDES OF INTEREST-BASED BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Resource is seen as not limited. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All negotiators' interests must be addressed for an agreement to be reached. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Focus on interests not positions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties look for objective or fair standards that all can agree to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Belief that there are probably multiple satisfactory solutions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiators are cooperative problem-solvers rather than opponents. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People and issues are separate. Respect people, bargain hard on interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Search for win/win solutions. HOW TO DO INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING Interests are needs that a negotiator wants satisfied or met. There are three types of interests: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Substantive interests–content needs (money, time, goods or resources, etc. ) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Procedural interests–needs for specific types of behavior or the â€Å"way that something is done. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Relationship or psychological interests–needs that refer to how one feels, how one is treated or conditions for ongoing relationship. 1. Identify the substantive, procedural and relationship interest/needs that you expect to be satisfied as a result of negotiations. Be clear on: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why the needs are important to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How important the needs are to you. 2. Speculate on the substantive, procedural and relationship interests that might be important to the other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess why the needs are important to them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess how important the needs are to them. 3. Begin negotiations by ed ucating each other about your respective interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Be specific as to why interests are important. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If other negotiators present positions, translate them into terms of interest. Do not allow other negotiators to commit to a particular solution or position. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make sure all interests are understood. 4. Frame the problem in a way that it is solvable by a win/win solution. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Remove egocentricity by framing problem in a manner that all can accept. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Include basic interests of all parties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make the framing congruent with the size of the problem to be addressed. 5. Identify general criteria that must be present in an acceptable settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for general agreements in principle. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify acceptable objective criteria that will be used to rea ch more specific agreements. 6. Generate multiple options for settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Present multiple proposals. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make frequent proposals. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vary the content. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make package proposals that link solutions to satisfy interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make sure that more than two options are on the table at any given time. . Utilize integrative option generating techniques: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Expand-the-pie–ways that more resources or options can be brought to bear on the problem. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternating satisfaction–each negotiator gets 100 percent of what s/he wants, but at different times. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade-offs–exchanges of concessions on issues of differing importance to the negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider two or more agenda items simultaneously. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiators trade concessions on issues of higher or lower importance to each. Each negotiator gets his/her way on one issue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Integrative solutions–look for solutions that involve maximum gains and few or no losses for both parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set your sights high on finding a win/win solution. 8. Separate the option generation process from the evaluation process. 9. Work toward agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use the Agreement-in-Principle Process (general level of agreements moving toward more specific agreements). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fractionate (break into small pieces) the problem and use a Building-Block Process (agreements on smaller issues that. when combined, form a general agreement). Reduce the threat level.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate and be educated about interests of all parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assure that all interests will be respected and viewed as legitimate. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Show an interest in their needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Do not exploit another negotiator's weakness. Demonstrate trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Put yourself in a â€Å"one down position† to other on issues where you risk a small, but symbolic loss. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Start with a problem solving rather than competitive approach. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Provide benefits above and beyond the call of duty. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and convey to other negotiators that they have been heard and understood. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and restate content to demonstrate understanding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and restate feelings to demonstrate acceptance (not necessarily agreement) and understanding of intensity. 10. Identify areas of agreement, restate them, and write them down. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING Costs †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Requires some trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Requires negotiators to disclose information and interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     May uncover extremely divergent values or interests Benefits †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Produces solutions that meet specific interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Builds relationships †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotes trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Models cooperative behavior that may be valuable in future. AN INTEGRATED APPROACH Naturally, all negotiations involve some positional bargaining and some interest-based bargaining, but each session may be characterized by a predominance of one approach or the other. Negotiators who take a positional bargaining approach will generally use interest-based bargaining only during the final stages of negotiations. When interest-based bargaining is used throughout negotiations it often produces wiser decisions in a shorter amount of time with less incidence of adversarial behavior. DYNAMICS OF NEGOTIATION Examining the approaches to negotiation only gives us a static view of what is normally a dynamic process of change. Let us now look at the stages of negotiation most bargaining sessions follow. Negotiators have developed many schemes to describe the sequential development of negotiations. Some of them are descriptive–detailing the progress made in each stage–while others are prescriptive–suggesting what a negotiator should do. We prefer a twelve-stage process that combines the two approaches. STAGES OF NEGOTIATION Stage 1:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Evaluate and Select a Strategy to Guide Problem Solving †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess various approaches or procedures–negotiation, facilitation, mediation, arbitration, court, etc. –available for problem solving.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Select an approach. Stage 2: Make Contact with Other Party or Parties †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make initial contact(s) in person, by telephone, or by mail. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explain your desire to negotiate and coordinate approaches. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build rap port and expand relationship †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build personal or organization's credibility. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promote commitment to the procedure. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate and obtain input from the parties about the process that is to be used. Stage 3: Collect and Analyze Background Information †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Collect and analyze relevant data about the people, dynamics and substance involved in the problem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Verify accuracy of data. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Minimize the impact of inaccurate or unavailable data. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify all parties' substantive, procedural and psychological interests. Stage 4: Design a Detailed Plan for Negotiation †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify strategies and tactics that will enable the parties to move toward agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify tactics to respond to situations peculiar to the specific issues to be negotiated. Stage 5: Build Trust and Cooperation †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prepare psychologically to participate in negotiations on substantive issues. Develop a strategy to handle strong emotions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Check perceptions and minimize effects of stereotypes. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build recognition of the legitimacy of the parties and issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build trust. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clarify communications. Stage 6: Beginning the Negotiation Session †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduce all parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exchange statements which demonstrate willingness to listen, share ideas, show openness to reason and demonstrate desire to bargain in good faith. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establish guidelines for behavior. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  State mutual expectations for the negotiations. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Describe history of problem and explain w hy there is a need for change or agreement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify interests and/or positions. Stage 7: Define Issues and Set an Agenda †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together identify broad topic areas of concern to people. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify specific issues to be discussed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frame issues in a non-judgmental neutral manner. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obtain an agreement on issues to be discussed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Determine the sequence to discuss issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Start with an issue in which there is high investment on the part of all participants, where there is not serious disagreement and where there is a strong likelihood of agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Take turns describing how you see the situation. Participants should be encouraged to tell their story in enough detail that all people understand the viewpoint presented. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use active listening, open-ended questions and focusing questions to gain additional information. Stage 8: Uncover Hidden Interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Probe each issue either one at a time or together to identify interests, needs and concerns of the principal participants in the dispute. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Define and elaborate interests so that all participants understand the needs of others as well as their own. Stage 9: Generate Options for Settlement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Develop an awareness about the need for options from which to select or create the final settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Review needs of parties which relate to the issue. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Generate criteria or objective standards that can guide settlement discussions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for agreements in pr inciple. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider breaking issue into smaller, more manageable issues and generating solutions for sub-issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Generate options either individually or through joint discussions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use one or more of the following procedures: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Expand the pie so that benefits are increased for all parties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternate satisfaction so that each party has his/her interests satisfied but at different times. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade items that are valued differently by parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for integrative or win/win options. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Brainstorm. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use trial and error generation of multiple solutions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Try silent generation in which each individual develops privately a list of options and then presents his/her ideas to other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use a caucus to develop op tions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Conduct position/counter position option generation. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Separate generation of possible solutions from evaluation. Stage 10: Assess Options for Settlement †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Review the interests of the parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess how interests can be met by available options. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess the costs and benefits of selecting options. Stage 11: Final Bargaining †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Final problem solving occurs when: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the alternatives is selected. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Incremental concessions are made and parties move closer together. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternatives are combined or tailored into a superior solution. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Package settlements are developed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties establish a procedural means to reach a substantive agreement. Stage 12: Achieving Formal Settlement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Agreement may be a written memorandum of understanding or a legal contract. Detail how settlement is to be implemented–who, what, where, when, how–a nd write it into the agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify â€Å"what ifs† and conduct problem solving to overcome blocks. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establish an evaluation and monitoring procedure. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Formalize the settlement and create enforcement and commitment mechanisms: Legal contract †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Performance bond †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Judicial review †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Administrative/executive approval Pre-Mediation Planning Before going into mediation, consider all of the possibilities. What risks do you face? What to you have to gain? What are the major â€Å"deal points† which will make or break the negotiation for you? In the field of mediation, the process of evaluating your case or position may be called BATNA and WATNA analysis. BATNA stands for Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement. In other words, if the mediation does not produce a settlement or other type of agreement, what is the best thing that could happen? Will the other side ultimately give in to your side? Will a new law cause things to come out in your favor? Will the other side lose interest in their position? Will your costs/risks be negligible? Are you confident about winning in court? These are the kinds of question you may ask yourself while evaluating your BATNA. WATNA stands for Worst Alternative to Negotiated Agreement. A couple of questions you may ask for this analysis are: Will the other side probably win in court? Who controls the status quo? If the case doesn’t settle, am I the one who will ultimately lose? The process of BATNA/WATNA analysis ultimately assists a party in determining the scope of their mediation efforts and their reservation point. Put another way, at what point will the party walk away from the table? When is it too risky not to settle, or too costly not to settle? Without a clear picture of these risk possibilities, it is extremely difficult to reasonably evaluate your case. A good mediator will also assist you in this analysis, but it’s better to be prepared and knowledgeable before entering negotiations. You will appear more confident and credible in your claims. Opening Offers and Demands Great debate rages in the negotiation field over whether or not to throw out the first offer. Some experts advise never, ever to make a first offer. Others cautiously advocate making a first offer if it serves your position. Whether you decide to make a first offer may depend upon your particular bargaining style. Be aware, however, that making a first offer sends a powerful signal to the other party. First, it has the potential to errode your credibility. If your offer or demand does not pass the â€Å"straight-face† test, your credibility may be on slippery slope. Be careful that your offer or demand isn’t so absurd as to make your statements and assertions throughout the rest of the negotiation unbelievable. Opening offers and demands are also powerful because they tell the other side roughly what your evaluation of the case is. It can therefore have the effect of shifting or anchoring the other party’s expectations to the range you have requested or offered. The party may then respond to the offer/demand by adjusting or reevaluating the number they originally had in mind. Alternatively, if your offer/demand is outside of their anticipated range, it can provoke anger, incredulity or an equally unreasonable or absurd counter-offer. Bottom-Lines: If you have a bottom-line number, guard it until the right moment. If you give it out too early, it can destroy the flexibility of the bargaining process. This occurs because parties often settle upon a number that wasn’t anticipated. By revealing a hard number too early, it cements you into a position that is much more difficult to negotiate from. It also takes away the possibily of â€Å"gift-giving† which we will discuss later. The most fundamental rule of bottom-lines, however, is to tell the truth. Don’t state a false bottom line, only to change it later to suit your negotiating needs. Doing so will ruin your credibility and decrease your leverage and bargaining power. If you are asked for a bottom-line and are not ready to give it, you may politely say that you have a number in mind but would like to engage in further discussion to learn as much as possible about all aspects of the dispute before making a final decision. Strategies and Techniques Bargaining Styles Below is a chart describing different bargaining styles. Which category do you fit into? Soft [Cooperative] Hard [Competitive] Principled Participants are friends. Participants are adversaries. Participantsare problem-solvers. The goal is agreement. The goal is victory. The goal is a wise outcome reached efficiently and amicably. Make concessions to cultivate the relationship. Demand concessions as a condition of therelationship. Separate the people from the problem. Be soft on the people and the problem. Be hard on the problem and the people. Be soft on the people; hard on the problem. Trust others. Distrust others. Proceed Independent of trust. Change your position easily. Dig in to your position. Focus on interest, not positions. Make offers. Make threats. Explore interests. Disclose your bottom line. Mislead as to your bottom line. Avoid having a bottom line. Accept one-sided losses to reach agreement. Demand one-sided gains as the price of agreement. Invent options for mutual gain. Search for the single answer; the one they will accept. Search for the single answer; the one you will accept. Develop multiple options to choose from; decide later. Insist on agreement. Insist on your position. Insist on using objective criteria. Try to avoid a contest of will. Try to win a contest of will. Try to reach a result based on standards independent of will. Yield to pressure. Apply pressure. Reason and be open to reasons; yeild to principle, not pressure. SPECIAL NOTES ON HARD-BARGAINERS: When encountering hard-bargainers, negotiation can be tricky. Difficulties arise because granting concessions makes the other side feel bullied, but sticking to principles can create an impasse of negotiation. Here are a few tips for dealing with hard bargainers: * Don’t attack the position, look behind it for interests and motivations * Don’t defend your position or statements, instead, invite criticism and suggestions * Don’t react, pause or relax * Don’t argue back – listen carefully and calmly * Reframe accusations as an assault on the problem itself * Ask productive questions Hard bargaining can arise in certain circumstances as well. Unreasonable initial demands, lack of meaningful information, greediness, positional bargaining, and threats can all cause a competitive bargaining environment to emerge. Leverage Leverage is an adversarial concept which allows a party to exert pressure on the other side by appealing to his/her fears, risks or needs. For example, if a party must have a certain dispute resolved by a certain date, withholding a resolution, walking away from the table, or delaying progress exerts pressure on that party to give in to the demands of the other side. Using threats is also a form of leverage. Threat must be used carefully so as not to enrage the other side such that they refuse to participate in continuing discussion. Research indicates that the efficacy of threats depends on their credibility, immediacy, context, specificity and equity. Another form of leverage is â€Å"ego stroking. † For some people, being recognized or acknowledged in a positive way can cause incredible shifts in perspective. Such a party may be more willing to negotiate, may be more generous, or may overlook past transgressions. Be sure that any appreciation for the other side that you convey is sincere. Sometimes, using positive-side leverage such as ego stroking can arouse an eagerness in the other party to reciprocate the sentiment or to seek to please you by offering concessions. The Origin of Brilliant (and not so brilliant) Ideas A great way to apply positive leverage while seizing advantageous settlement opportunities is to give credit to the other side for discovering a solution or for presenting a good idea. Instead of saying, â€Å"I want X dollars to replace my damaged roof† say, â€Å"A little while ago, you presented a very clear picture of the problem and it helped me to understand the issue of the roof better. I would like to hear more of your ideas about how we can approach that particular aspect of this negotiation. † In other words, create for the other party a positive reputation, even if you believe it is undeserved in your particular scenario, that they can then attempt to live up to. Conversely, when a party makes a tactical mistake which doesn’t help your position, but does threaten further progress, give them an easy opportunity to save face. For example, â€Å"If I’m not mistaken, I think I heard you say you wanted $3 billion for your broken fence. I know there are a lot of numbers being exchanged here and I have become confused myself a couple of times with the amount of data. Would you like to review that figure and potentially make an adjustment at some point? † Be sure to avoid enouraging or doing anything which could result in face-saving-behaviors. Face-saving behaviors are defensive attempts to re-establish face after threats to face or so-called â€Å"face-loss†. People are often willing and even eager to retaliate and sacrifice rewards at great cost when they perceive the threat of humiliation. By engaging in such behavior you are, at best, reducing the predictability of the outcome, and at worst, creating a hostile and perilous environment which could cost you and the other party a mutually agreeable settlement while augmenting the costs of dispute resolution. The Sometime-Appeal of High Concepts With some negotiators, it is possible to paint a bigger picture which extends beyond the limits of present issues. By appealing, for example, to a person’s sense of idealism or a particular world-view, it is sometimes possible to break a deadlocked negotiation. However, just as high concepts can broaden the mind of a stubborn participant, a carelessly made plea to a person’s sense of justice can provoke indignation and encourage increasing inflexibility. For example, a negotiator might say, â€Å"If we are able to come to a settlement today regarding the teacher’s union, the students can return to school much sooner and resume their studies, which is, of course, what we all want. † However, some negotiators may interpret such a statement as disingenuous, or mocking. So be careful! Reciprocal Bargaining Some negotiation experts contend that a reciprocal bargaining strategy promotes responsibility, accountability, and reasonable dealings. Reciprocal Bargaining theory basically holds that if one party makes an unreasonable demand or offer, the other side must do the same, back to that party. The result is, theoretically, that each side will then see and appreciate the consequences of their own behavior throughout the negotiation. Alternatively, if one party demonstrates generosity or uncommon honesty, the other side should reciprocate that behavior as well. The relationship-building potential of this strategy has been touted by many mediation experts as an effective way to facilitate productive conversation. Alternatively, this strategy can be counter-productive if the parties do not respond appropriately to the consequences. This can occur where parties are emotionally involved in the proceedings, when personal relationships are the actual subject of dispute or when the negotiation involves more than one â€Å"hard-bargainer†. In these scenarios, a reciprocal strategy can create a downward sprial of bad behavior which ultimately causes negotions to break down completely. GENEROUS RECIPROCAL BARGAINING THEORY: An alternative stragegy is to employ a downward-spiral breaking strategy known as generous reciprocal bargaining. This reciprocal strategy does not work in the systematic framework of the standard reciprocal bargaining. Instead, the parties reciprocate positive and negative behavior only the majority of the time. At irregular intervals, a party using this strategy will unexpectedly not reciprocate a negative behavior committed by the other party. This behavior breaks the vicious cycle of negative behavior and can allow for positive behavior changes in both parties, leaving them open to more productive communication exchanges and opportunities for mutual agreement. Gift Giving Giving gifts during negotiation is a great way to generate goodwill, especially at the initiation of bargaining. Small concessions will leave a strong impression with the other side’s perception of you, and may influence their actions going forward. Small concessions are a low cost method of initiating momentum in negotiations. By the way, one of the easiest and cheapest concessions you can grant to the other side is to listen to them, carefully, openly, and without judgment. Complaining Some experts advise mediation participants to refrain from complaining. However, our position is that complaints can be useful to the extent that they can generate empathy and produce increased willingness to exhibit flexibility from the other side. If reasonable and genuine complaints are made carefully, are well-timed, are not excessively accusatory and do not occur with too much regularity, they can prove useful in the context of negotiation. Positions vs. Interests As we viewed in the bargaining styles chart, people negotiate in different ways, and with different results. A major problem in many mediations is that participants become committed to their positions, that is, the result they are aiming for. This tactic, (or tactical error) causes inflexibility and generates ill-will. Mediators attempt to separate the interests from the positions. That is, the mediator seeks to learn what the actual issues that drive the mediation are. By separating out the interests an objective approach to resolving the dispute becomes possible and solutions become more clearly visible. For futher illustration, please view this chart: PROBLEM: The immediate source of conflict. INTERPRETATION: How people interpret the other party’s behavior. POSITION: Demands, threats, fixed solutions, proposals, or points of view. INTEREST: What really matters to this person. (Why is X a problem? )   Ã‚  Ã‚   ISSUE: The topic the parties need to discuss and decide. Barking dog. Neighbor is unfriendly, inconsiderate. Violates my privacy. Buy a muzzle. I’m not well. I need my sleep. Want my home to be a quiet, private place. How to control the barking at night. Unfair bill. This company wants to rip me off. They think I’m not smart enough to notice. I will not pay for work you didn’t even do. Want to be treated fairly. Need to know how much something is going to cost so I can budget for it. What work was done, what recompense is fair. How rest of job will be billed. As a negotiator, it is important to focus on your interests and to resist trying to control the outcome of the negotiation. In this way, you can more reasonably evaluate your risks, options and creative solutions along the way to a mutually agreeable solution. Additionally, it’s a good idea to focus on the interests of the other side. By understanding, and by demonstrating understanding of the other side’s interests, you will more easily command their attention and better understand the major deal points that will solve the dispute. Problems vs. People Similar to the above paragraph, mediators continually work to separate the people from the problems. This promotes a problem solving environment while reducing sniping, personal attacks and unreasonable and inflammatory statements. Be careful not to bargain over your positions. Instead, invent ptions for mutual gain, insist on using objective, evaluative criteria instead of accusatory statements. Although it’s hard to take, if another party insults you personally, ignore the attack and look behind it to discover the feelings and motivations of the accuser. You may learn valuable information about the party’s interests. To avoid inflaming the other party as well, a void accusatory statements, personal attacks, petty insults and counter-productive statements and questions such as: What do you want from me? Calm down! Be reasonable! What’s your problem? and You always†¦. or You never†¦.. Reframing Reframing is perhaps the most important part of negotiation. Reframing is the process of restating something the other side has said in a way that is mutually beneficial. Reframing signals to the other party that you have listened to their story and that you understand and appreciate it. This, in itself, is a type of concession, and it doesn’t cost you a thing! Reframing is an opportunity that presents itself at multiple stages of mediation. Instead of rejecting an offer, reframe it to convey your understanding as well as to present an opportunity to shift the focus or perspective on the topic. You might try saying â€Å"and† instead of â€Å"but† to effectively reject an offer while appearing open to further discussion and at the same time reframing the issue to your advantage. Also, it is a good idea to ask sincere questions instead of making demands whenever possible. Instead of pushing the other side to meet your demands, use reframing to bring them to your point of view. Instead of escalating an argument, use reframing to educate the other side about your feelings and interests. Above all, reframing places the negotiation in the context of cooperation instead of competition. Effective Listening This topic will be covered in-depth in the next unit. For now, let’s look at the most basic concepts of effective listening. Listening is a great skill of negotiation. Listening allows you to learn about the other side’s interests and to discover crucial dealpoints. Close listening also helps to generate goodwill with the other side. The value of â€Å"being heard† is greatly underestimated. Often, where emotions are involved, the opportunity to be heard and understood is very powerful. By listening carefully, you pave the ay to excellent reframing opportunities, greater leverage, and an improved bargaining position. Be sure to listen carefully and actively (while respecting the groundrules of the mediation), empathize with the other side, ask questions which convey your understanding and empathy, and finally, restate the other side’s story back to them while carefully respecting sensitive aspects of the account so that you do not infla me them. Deal Killers In every negotiation, the possibility of failure exists. Certain conditions, behaviors, or acts threaten to stall or break down negotiations. The more you know about these potential deal breakers, the better prepared you will be when you confront them, either on your own side, or across the table. 1. Reactive Devaluation 2. Parties tend to view offers by the other side skeptically. This leads to misevaluation of the other side’s position. Hidden Emotion Example: â€Å"I would rather lose than settle with this guy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This leads to misevaluation. 3. Failure to Understand BATNA/WATNA: Leads to misevaluation. 4. Biased Assimilation: Parties tend to hear and remember things they want to hear, and not hear things that are unpleasant. This leads to misevaluation. 5. Loss Aversion: People generally prefer to avoid loss rather than to achieve gains. This leads to excessive attachment to positions. 6. Direct Contradiction: Avoid using language like, â€Å"You’re wrong. † Instead, offer a different perspective when it is your time to speak after validating the other party’s opinion. 7. Equity Seeking: Parties may seek to return to the â€Å"Status Quo Ante† – that is, the state they were in prior to when the particular conflict arose, or to recoup costs incurred in litigation or which have arisen from the conflict itself. In so doing, that party may prolong the dispute unnecessarily in an attempt to reach that pre-conflict status. 8. Attribution Error: Parties tend to see the other side as evil, and their own side as innocent. This leads to misevaluation. 9. Endowment: People tend to overvalue their own property and interests, and undervalue the property and interests of others. 10. Miscalculation or ignorance of Deal Breakers: Think about reasons why the other side might refuse to settle. Plan out graceful ways to provide counter arguments or methods of avoiding those deal breakers.